Part One I › Division II II › Section 124 124

Heat, Thermodynamics, and the Nonsolid States of Matter

Subject Outline

AThe principles of thermodynamics
- 1The description of physical phenomena based on the concepts of system, state of a system, and changes of state
- 2The first law of thermodynamics
- 3The second law of thermodynamics
- 4Stable equilibrium
  - aEquations relating properties of systems that are in, or are passing through, stable equilibrium states
  - bTemperature considered as the potential governing the flow of energy between systems
  - cHeat
    - iThe definition of heat as a form of energy transferred from one body to another under the influence of a difference in temperature
    - iiTheories of heat: the phlogiston theory, the caloric theory, the kinetic molecular theory
    - iiiHeat transfer in matter: heat conductivity in solids, convection in liquids and gases, heat transfer in boiling liquids, evaporation and condensation
    - ivTechnical applications of heat energy [see 721.B.7.and 725.A.5.a.]
    - vHeat and its relation to entropy, work, and change of energy
- 5Thermodynamic relations in simple systems
  - aThe Carnot cycle
  - bMaxwell's equations relating entropy to pressure, volume, and temperature for closed systems that assume only stable equilibrium states
  - cPhase changes and equilibria
  - dSimple one-component systems: processes at constant volume and at constant pressure; the equation of state, which relates pressure, volume, and temperature for stable equilibrium states
  - eSimple multicomponent systems: the Maxwell relations, Dalton's law for mixture of gases, Raoult's law and Henry's law for ideal solutions
  - fBulk flow
  - gEquilibrium in chemical reactions [see 123.B.3.]
- 6The third law of thermodynamics
- 7The effects of applied force fields on simple systems
- 8Steady rate processes; e.g., systems approaching stable equilibrium, flow of a substance through a barrier
- 9Statistical thermodynamics
  - aThe laws of thermodynamics that consider the detailed microscopic structure of physical systems and the states of such systems
  - bStatistics of grand systems
BThe gaseous state of matter
- 1The nature and properties of a gas
- 2The thermodynamic approach to gases: the macroscopic view that deals with bulk measurable properties
  - aThe simple gas laws
  - bThe thermal equation of state for perfect gases
  - cEmpirical equations of state for real gases
- 3The particle-description approach to gases
  - aThe distribution function
  - bThe Boltzmann transport equation and the single-particle distribution function
  - cThe N-particle distribution function and the thermodynamic-equilibrium properties and transport properties of dense gases
  - dThe behaviour of a gas at the hydrodynamic and thermal relaxation stages
CThe liquid state of matter
- 1The behaviour and properties of liquids at equilibrium
- 2The molecular structure of liquids based on distribution functions, which measure the probable distribution of some property of molecules through the liquid
- 3Properties of liquids
  - aTransport properties
  - bAcoustic properties: propagation of sound waves
  - cElectrical and magnetic properties
  - dThermodynamic properties
  - eOptical properties
  - fSurface tension
DSolutions and solubility
- 1General classes of solutions: electrolytes and nonelectrolytes, solutions of weak electrolytes, endothermic and exothermic solutions
- 2Properties of solutions
  - aComposition ratios: molarity, molality, mole fraction
  - bEquilibrium properties: correlation of the vapour pressure of a solution to its composition
  - cColligative properties: rise in boiling point, decrease in freezing point, osmotic pressure
  - dTransport properties: viscosity, thermal conductivity, diffusivity
- 3Thermodynamic and molecular aspects of solvent and solute interactions
  - aEnergy considerations: entropy, enthalpy, Gibbs free energy
  - bEffects of molecular structure and weak intermolecular forces
  - cEffects of chemical interactions; e.g., hydrogen bonding, chemical combinations
- 4General theories of solution: the prediction of solubility and solution properties
  - aSolutions of nonelectrolytes: Raoult's law and Henry's law for ideal solutions; theoretical expressions for the excess properties of regular athermal, associated, and solvated solutions
  - bSolutions of electrolytes: Debye-Huckel theory and modifications, Arrhenius dissociation theory
- 5Effects of temperature and pressure on the solubility of solids and gases
EPhysical effects at surfaces
- 1Surface tension and surface energy: cohesion and adhesion
- 2Adsorption on liquid and solid surfaces
- 3Tribological phenomena, the mechanical and physical effects at interfaces: friction, wear, lubrication
- 4Colloids: the kinds of dispersions and their properties and preparation
  - aIrreversible colloidal systems: lyophobic sols, emulsions, foams, pastes, gels
  - bReversible colloidal systems: solutions of polymers and proteins, solutions of soaps and dyes
FThe plasma state of matter: completely ionized gases interacting with magnetic and electric fields
- 1Basic plasma properties and parameters: electrical quasineutrality, electron density, kinetic temperature, particle velocities, magnetic and electric field strengths
- 2Elastic and inelastic collisions of plasma particles
- 3Radiation from plasmas; e.g., X rays, synchrotron radiation, excitation radiation
- 4The formation of plasmas
- 5The behaviour of plasmas in magnetic and electric fields
- 6The determination of plasma variables
- 7Fluidlike behaviour in plasmas
- 8Applications of plasmas; e.g., power production, jet propulsion [see 112.G.4., 721.B.8.a., and 721.C.3.]
- 9The existence of plasmas in nature: in the extraterrestrial medium, in the Sun and stars, on Earth
GThe properties of matter at extreme conditions
- 1Properties of matter at low temperatures
  - aEffects of low temperature on entropy, heat capacity, magnetic properties, and conductivity
  - bSpecial physical phenomena at very low temperatures: superconductivity, superfluidity
  - cSpecial methods for obtaining and characterizing low temperatures: adiabatic cooling, adiabatic dilution
- 2Special properties of matter at high temperatures
- 3Effects of high pressure on the physical, chemical, electronic, and magnetic properties of matter
HTransport phenomena
- 1The kinetic molecular theory of the transport properties of gases, liquids, suspensions, and polymers
- 2Phenomenological expressions of transport
- 3Hydrodynamic aspects of transport phenomena