Part Nine IX › Division VI VI › Section 963 963

Europe from 1789 to c. 1920

Subject Outline

AEuropean political and economic revolution (1789-1850): the French Revolution and its effects, the development and effects of industrialization
- 1The French Revolution and its reverberating effects on Europe (1789-1815)
  - aThe climate of change: "patriotism" in America and the Netherlands (1770-90)
  - bFrance from 1789 to 1815: the Revolution, the First Republic, and the First Napoleonic Empire
    - iThe revolt of the Third Estate: uprisings in Paris and the provinces, the reforms of the Constituent Assembly, abolition of the monarchy, Marat and the Jacobins, the Legislative Assembly
    - iiThe First Republic to 1795: the Convention, Danton, Robespierre, the Committee of Public Safety and the Terror, the Thermidorian reaction
    - iiiThe Directory (1795-99) and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte: as first consul (1799-- 1804) and emperor (1804), the Code Napoleon and reconciliation with the church
    - ivFrance under the Napoleonic First Empire: social, economic, and religious reforms
  - cInternational war and diplomacy in the Age of the French Revolution
    - iThe War of the First Coalition (1792-97): French support for revolution in neighbouring lands and annexation of Nice, Savoy, Austrian Netherlands, the Rhineland, and the Batavian Republic; Napoleon's Italian Campaign; the Treaty of Campo Formio (1797)
    - iiThe French expedition to Egypt and Syria (1798-1802): Continental campaigns of the Second Coalition (1798-1802), French occupation of Rome and Naples, Marengo and Hohenlinden, Peace of Luneville (1801) and Treaty of Amiens (1802), Napoleon's reorganization of the German states and the formal end of the Holy Roman Empire (1806)
    - iiiThe Third Coalition (1805-07) and the battles of Trafalgar, Austerlitz, Jena, and Friedland: the subjugation of Prussia, Treaty of Tilsit (1807) and the peak of Napoleon's power, the Continental System and its failure
    - ivThe Franco-Austrian War (1809), the Spanish uprising and the Peninsular War (1808-14), Napoleon's defeat in the Russian campaign (1812) and the campaign of the Fourth Coalition, downfall (1814) and exile of Napoleon
    - vThe Hundred Days and Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo (1815), the Congress of Vienna and Metternich's attempt to restore the old order in Europe
  - dPolitical, economic, and social effects of French occupation in Germany, Italy, Switzerland, and the Low Countries
  - eGreat Britain from 1789 to 1815
    - iThe influence of the French Revolution on the growth of English radicalism: governmental hostility to reform, Pitt's ministries and the war with France, Canning and Castlereagh, British gains in the peace settlements
    - iiSuppression of the Irish Rebellion of 1798 and union of Great Britain and Ireland (1801): Irish social, economic, and cultural life in the 17th and 18th centuries
  - fRussia in the reigns of Paul I (1796-1801) and Alexander I (1801-25): Russian participation in the Napoleonic Wars, the initial liberal reforms of Alexander I
  - gPrussia (1786-1815)
    - iMilitary decline following the death of Frederick II the Great: participation in the French Revolutionary Wars, defeat by Napoleon in 1806
    - iiThe Stein reforms: Prussian leadership of Germany in the wars of liberation (181 3-- 14), territorial acquisitions in the Vienna peace settlement (1815)
  - hAustria (1790-1815): the reigns of Leopold II (1790-92) and Francis II (1792-1806; as emperor of Austria, Francis I, 1804-35); participation in the coalitions against Napoleon, shift to compliance with him, and eventual intervention in the wars of liberation
  - iThe smaller German states under French influence: the Confederation of the Rhine
  - jSpain and Portugal
    - iSpain in the reign of Charles IV (1788-1808), French occupation (1808) and British aid in the War of Independence (Peninsular War), restoration of the Bourbons
    - iiPortugal: alliance with Britain in the struggle against France
  - kScandinavia from 1789 to 1815
    - iDenmark: defeat by the British (1801), alliance with France after 1807, the loss of Norway to Sweden (1814)
    - iiSweden: Gustav IV and Charles XIII, the loss of Finland to Russia (1809), installation of Bernadotte as crown prince (1810), his anti-Napoleonic policy and the acquisition of Norway
  - lItaly during the French Revolution: support of revolutionary goals, French invasion and establishment of the republics, the French Consulate and the Napoleonic Empire
- 2Pan-European developments in the first half of the 19th century: economic, intellectual, cultural, and social movements
  - aThe Industrial Revolution
    - iBritish commercial, agricultural, and military growth: the factory system and advances in textile and machine technology, development of railroads
    - iiConditions on the Continent and the spread of the factory system to Belgium, France, and Germany
    - iiiThe social consequences of the Industrial Revolution: division between capitalist and worker, wages and living and working conditions, new abundance of manufactured goods
  - bThe legacy of the French Revolution: cultural nationalism, populism, influence of Napoleon
  - cThe Romantic movement: individualism and concern for nature and "folk" in contrast with the Enlightenment
  - dNew facilities for scientific study in France and other Continental countries: effects of technological developments and scientific thought on society, principle of evolution
  - ePhilosophy: the role of Immanuel Kant and his disciples (Fichte, Hegel, and Schopenhauer), German Idealism
  - fReligion and its alternatives: Catholic and Protestant revivals, Jewish emancipation, scientific positivism and the cult of art
  - gThe beginning of "scientific history" and modem philology
  - hInternational war and diplomacy in the age of Mettemich
    - iCongress of Europe: the Quadruple and Holy alliances for maintenance of the Vienna settlement, French intervention in Spain (1823), Austrian intervention in Italy (1821 and 1830), changes in the Congress system with the Revolution of 1830 in France and Belgium
    - iiGeneral European unrest: the revolutions of 1848 and their suppression, Austrian intervention in Italy, Russian intervention in Hungary
  - iGreat Britain and Ireland (1815-50)
  - iEconomic depression and social unrest following the Napoleonic Wars: repression by the government
  - iiPolitical and social reform measures (1822-48); e.g., penal reforms, Catholic Emancipation (1829), Peel's new police force (1829), First Reform Bill (1832), abolition of slavery in British colonies (1833), new Poor Law (1834), repeal of the Corn Laws ( 1846), Navigation Acts, the Chartist movement, the growth of trade unionism and the Factory Act (1847), Public Health Act (1848)
  - iiiDevelopments in Ireland: the Great Famine of the 1840s, Roman Catholic unrest, O'Connell and the Young Ireland movement
  - jFrance from 1814 to 1852
    - iThe Restoration (1814, 1815-30): moderate constitutionalism under Louis XVIII, reaction and clericalism under Charles X
    - iiThe Revolution of 1830, Louis-Philippe and the July monarchy, the preservation of the status quo under Guizot, growing dissatisfaction with the regime in the 1840s
    - iiiThe Revolution of 1848: Socialist thought and the establishment of the Second Republic, suppression of Socialist experiments, presidency of Louis-Napoleon
  - kGermany from 1815 to c. 1850
    - iThe German Confederation: Austrian domination under Mettemich, the student national unity movement and its repression by the Carlsbad Decrees (1819), beginning of industrialization and the Zollverein
    - iiThe revolutions of 1848-49: the Frankfurt National Assembly and its failure to unite Germany
    - iiiFrederick William IV: restoration of the German Confederation, return to conservative policies, continued industrialization
  - lThe Austrian Empire from 1815 to 1850
    - iDevelopment of national consciousness among the peoples of the empire: cultural revival among Magyars, Croats, Serbians, Poles, Romanians, Czechs, Slovaks, and Slovenes; German and Italian nationalism
    - iiMettemich's hostility to liberalism: Austria as a symbol of reaction in Italy
    - iiiThe revolutions of 1848 and 1849 in Vienna, Prague, and Budapest
  - mThe Italian states from 1815 to 1850
    - iThe Vienna settlement: the Austrian Habsburgs in Lombardy- Venetia, the Bourbons in the Two Sicilies, Victor Emmanuel in Savoy, the Carbonari
    - iiAbortive revolutions in Naples and Piedmont (1820); economic slump and revival; rebellions in Modena, Parma, the Romagna, the Marches, and Umbria (1831)
    - iiiThe Risorgimento: Mazzini, Young Italy, and Young Europe; the early liberalism of Pope Pius IX
    - ivThe revolutions of 1848: the first phase of the Italian War of Independence, defeat of Piedmont by Austria (1848-49)
  - nSwitzerland from 1815 to 1860: conservative constitution of 1815, the Sonderbund War ( 1847), the new federal state established ( 1848-60), policy of neutrality
  - oRussia from 1815 to c. 1850: later conservatism of Alexander I, the Decembrist revolt (1825), Nicholas I's (1825-55) conservative policies
    - iRule by bureaucracy, social classes, intellectual life, the empire and its various nationalities
    - iiForeign policy: conflict with Poland, relations with Turkey
  - pThe Low Countries from 1814 to 1848: union of The Netherlands, Luxembourg, and Belgium (1814); Belgian Revolution (1830) and establishment as a separate monarchy under Leopold I (1831-65); constitutional reform (1848) in The Netherlands
  - qSpain and Portugal from 1815 to 1850
    - iSpain under Ferdinand VII, revolution and abortive liberal government (1820-23), loss of South American empire ( 1820s), Isabella II and the succession dispute, First Carlist War (1833-39) and the "Spanish marriages" controversy
    - iiPortuguese loss of Brazil (1822), civil war between constitutionalists and absolutists (1832-34), British intervention (1826--34), Maria II (1834-53) and civil strife between Septembrists and Saldanha
  - rScandinavia from 1815 to 1850
    - iDenmark in the reigns of Frederick VI (1808-39) and Christian VIII (1839-48): beginning of economic problems, tendencies toward constitutional government culminating in the constitution of 1849, war over Schleswig-Holstein (1848-51)
    - iiDevelopments in Sweden-Norway: conservative era under Charles XIV John (181 8-- 44), liberal reforms after 1840 and under Oscar I (1844-59), Norway's struggle to assert independence from Sweden
    - iiiFinland and Iceland: Finnish political organization and Russian influence, the position of Iceland after the Treaty of Kiel (1814)
  - sThe Balkan states from c. 1804 to 1850
    - iSerbian uprising (1804-13) and the rise of the principality, restoration of Ottoman power in Serbia (1813-15), Serbian autonomy (1830) under Ottoman Empire, Milos Obrenovic recognized as prince of Serbia (1833-39) and government of Alexander Karageorge (1842-58)
    - iiGreek revolution (1821-30) and establishment of independence, internal strife under Otho I (1832-62), constitutional government introduced in 1843
BRealism and materialism, nationalism, the reorganization of Europe, imperialist expansion ( 1850--
- c1920)
- 1European cultural and economic life from 1850 to 1920
  - aPhilosophy and political and social thought: the prevalence of Determinism and Materialism
  - bDevelopments in the arts, philosophy, and religion
  - cScientific theory and practice: Einsteinian relativity, the social effects of medical advances, development of the behavioral sciences, new views of the universe
  - dEconomic life: the course of industrialization (1870-1914)
    - iIndustrial proliferation: expansion into new areas such as the U.S., eastern Europe, and Japan
    - iiChanging balance of economic power in Europe: emergence of Germany as the leading industrial power, decline of British industrial strength
    - iiiThe revolution in transportation and communications: steam navigation and the beginning of air travel; the internal-combustion engine; the telegraph, telephone, and radio; industrialization on the eve of World War I
- 2International war and diplomacy from 1850 to c. 1920: Realpolitik and European diplomatic realignments
  - aThe era of Italian and German unification
    - iFinal dissolution of the Congress of Vienna alliance system: the Crimean War (1853-- 56) and its aftermath
    - iiThe Italian War of Independence: French intervention against Austria in Italy, the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy (1861)
    - iiiBismarck and the creation of the German Empire: victories over Denmark (1864), , Austria (1866), and France (1870-71)
  - bThe first period of German predominance
    - iBismarck's system of alliances: the Dreikaiserbund and the isolation of France, the Russo-Turkish War (1877-78) and the Congress of Berlin (1878-79), the Triple Alliance (1882)
    - iiThe Franco-Russian alliance (from 1893) and the Entente Cordiale (1904): Russia's defeat in the Far East (1904-05) and the formation of the Triple Entente (1907)
    - iiiPrelude to World War I: the Moroccan and Bosnian crises, the Balkan Wars (191 2-- 13), the outbreak of war between the great powers (1914)
  - cThe resurgence of European imperialism (c. 1875-1914)
    - iRenewed interest in overseas expansion by the European powers in the late 19th century: new acquisitions and new colonial powers, development of new theories of imperialism
    - iiThe European penetration of Asia and the partitioning of Africa: Russian expansion, economic penetration of China, rise of Japan, scramble for Africa
  - dWorld War I (1914-18) and the Treaty of Versailles (1919)
    - iThe Serbian crisis and general mobilization: the opening German offensive in the east and west (August 1914), stabilization of the Western Front, trench warfare, new military technology (air power, tanks, and poison gas), the Battle of Verdun, renewed stalemate
    - iiThe entrance of Italy, Turkey, Japan, and other nations into the war: campaigns in the Balkans and the Middle East
    - iiiGerman submarine warfare and the U.S. entry into the war (1917); the Russian Revolution (1917), military collapse, and the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918); the last Allied offensive and the armistice (1918)
    - ivTotal war and the mobilization of whole populations; the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian, Russian, and Ottoman empires
    - vThe leadership, industrial strength, strategic plans and goals, and tactical and logistical procedures of the belligerents
    - viThe Paris Peace Conference (1919-20) and the peace treaty: Wilson's influence; German reparations, restrictions, and territorial losses; reorganization of central Europe and the Middle East by the Allies; the mandates and the League of Nations
- 3The European states from 1850 to c. 1920
  - aGreat Britain and Ireland and expansion of overseas empire (1850-1920)
    - iMid-Victorian politics and economics: liberalism and free trade, the Great Exhibition (1851), Russell's and Palmerston's foreign policies regarding the Crimean War and the Indian Mutiny, Second Reform Bill (1867)
    - iiMid-Victorian society and religion: Victorian social attitudes (duty, thrift, hard work, and character), liberalism and the High Church movement, revival of Scottish Calvinism
    - iiiGladstone's liberalism and "Tory Democracy" and imperialism under Disraeli; Third Reform Bill (1884); the Irish Question and the rise of Fenianism, Parnell, and the Home Rule movement; Chamberlain and the split in the Liberal Party; Fabian socialism and growth of the Labour movement; South African War (1899-1902)
    - ivThe return of the Liberals (1905-14): Lloyd George's people's budget and National Insurance Act (1911), Parliament Act of 1911, continuing struggle over Ireland and Unionism in Ulster
    - vBritish participation in World War I: Lloyd George's Coalition government, the Easter Rising of 1916 in Ireland
  - bFrance from 1852 to 1920: the Second Empire and the Third Republic
    - iNapoleon III's authoritarian policies and reassertion of France's role in Europe (the Crimea and Italy): partnership with Britain (1852-60), the liberal years (1859-70), foreign policy failures and defeat by Germany (1871)
    - iiThe siege of Paris, the Commune, and the establishment of the Third Republic (1870); attempts at restoration; the "Republican Republic"; opportunist control under Gambetta; the Boulangists; colonial expansion; the Dreyfus affair; separation of church and state (1905)
    - iiiThe prewar years: conflicts between French rightists and Socialists, alignment with Russia and Britain before World War I, nationalism and revanchism
    - ivWorld War I (1914-18): German occupation of northeastern France, the crisis of 1917, the Clemenceau government, French human and material losses in the war
  - cThe unification of Germany and Prussia (1850-1920)
    - iWilliam I and tentative reform: clashes with the liberals, Bismarck and reform of the Prussian Army, parliamentary subservience to the crown
    - iiPrussian and Austrian differences over the subjugation of Schleswig-Holstein ( 1864- 66), the exclusion of Austria and the union of north and south Germany in the German Empire after the defeat of France (1871)
    - iiiBismarck as imperial chancellor (1871-90): Kulturkampf and the breach with the National Liberals, anti-Socialist measures and social legislation, Bismarck's consolidation of German power and formation of the Triple Alliance (1882)
    - ivThe accession of Emperor William II (1888) and the fall of Bismarck; chancellorships of Caprivi, Hohenlohe, and Billow (1890-1909); estrangement from Russia and rivalry with Britain; colonial expansion; militarists and Social Democrats in the period before World War I
    - vWorld War I (1914-18) and increasing influence of the army: German military defeat (1918), establishment of the German Republic (1919)
  - dThe Austrian and Austro-Hungarian Empire from 1850 to 1920
    - iConstitutional experiments: the Kremsier and Stadion constitutions; the "Bach System," the October Diploma (1860), and the February Patent (1861); federalism and centralism (1850-67); the role of Emperor Francis Joseph (1848-1916); exclusion from Italy (1859) and Germany (1866); the Ausgleich (Compromise) and the establishment of the Dual Monarchy (1867)
    - iiAustria: the liberal ascendancy under the Auersperg ministry (1871-78) and the coalition of clericals, German aristocrats, and Slavs under Taaffe (1879-93); relations between Austrians and Slavic minorities in the empire; the introduction of universal male suffrage (1907); foreign policy (1878-1908); annexation of Bosnia and Hercegovina and the crises in the Balkans
    - iiiHungary: the Andrassy government, internal conflict between the opponents and advocates of the Compromise of 1867, social reforms and economic progress, Magyar supremacy maintained under Tisza (1875-90)
    - ivAdherence to the Triple Alliance, increasing governmental paralysis and subordination to Germany during World War I, the dissolution of the Habsburg monarchy (1918) and the dismemberment of the empire
  - eThe Russian Empire from c. 1850 to 1917
    - iDefeat in the Crimean War (1853-56), abolition of serfdom (1861) and local government reforms under Alexander II (1855-81), Polish rebellion of 1863 and the spread of revolutionary sentiment, the assassination of the Tsar (1881)
    - iiReversal of the reform movement under Alexander III (1881-94), the zemstvos, government hostility to non-Russian minorities, Nicholas II (1894-1917), anti-reform policies, foundation of the Social Democrats and Social Revolutionaries
    - iiiEconomic, cultural, and social developments: Russification policies, foreign policies
    - ivDisorders following defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05), the Dumas, World War I and the abolition of the monarchy (1917)
  - fItaly from 1850 to 1920
    - iCavour and the unification of Italy under Victor Emmanuel of Piedmont: alliance with France and domestic liberalism, papal opposition, Austrian defeat and territorial cessions in northern Italy in the war of 1859, Garibaldi and the conquest of the south, the annexation of Venetia from Austria (1866) and acquisition of Rome (1870)
    - iiThe Kingdom of Italy: Minghetti, Depretis, and Crispi; Italian adherence to the Triple Alliance; growth of Socialism, labour movements, and militant nationalism; the Giolitti era; participation in World War I
  - gSwitzerland from 1850 to 1920: domestic policies, neutrality in World War I
  - hSpain and Portugal
    - iContinued civil strife in Spain: control by the military; Carlists, moderados, progressistas, and republicans; the First Republic (1873-74); constitutional monarchy in 1876; further colonial losses in the Spanish-American War (1898)
    - iiThe reaction against liberalism following Spain's defeat, Spanish involvement in Morocco, civil tensions and neutrality in World War I
    - iiiAlternating progressive and conservative governments in Portugal under Pedro V (1853-61) and Fuis I (1861-89), dispute with Great Britain over colonial policies, financial difficulties, dictatorship in 1906, the Portuguese Republic (1910) and Portugal's adherence to the British alliance in World War I
  - iScandinavia from 1850 to 1920
  - iDenmark: the Schleswig-Holstein question, defeat by Prussia and Austria (1864) and loss of the duchies, social and economic change under the Conservative regime
  - iiSweden-Norway: parliamentary reforms in Sweden under Charles XV (1859-72), foreign policy, attitudes in Sweden and in Norway toward the Swedish-Norwegian union
  - iiiFinland and Iceland: the language problem and political reforms in Finland, its relations with Russia, Iceland's demands for self-government
  - jThe Fow Countries from 1848 to 1920
    - iThe Netherlands: liberalization after 1848, the establishment of the independence of Fuxembourg (1890), Queen Wilhelmina and World War I
    - iiBelgian Fiberal government (1857-84), rise of Catholic and Belgian Workers' (Socialist) parties, the education controversy and Catholic party rule (1884-1914), universal male suffrage and child labour laws, Feopold II's establishment of Congo Free State (1885) and annexation as Belgian Congo (1908), Flemish resistance to the French-speaking elite
    - iiiWorld War I: Dutch neutrality and the German conquest of Belgium
  - kThe Balkan States from 1850 to 1920: power conflicts resulting in the Balkan Wars (191 2-- 13) and World War I
    - iGreece: the overthrow of Otho I ( 1862), the constitution of 1864, acquisition of the Ionian Islands (1864) and Thessaly (1881), Cretan union with Greece (1908), Venizelos' policies, eventual adherence to the Triple Entente in World War I
    - iiSerbia: restoration of Milos Obrenovic in 1858, defeat by Turkey (1876), the Kingdom of Serbia (1882), the pro-Austrian policy of the Obrenovic dynasty, restoration of the Karageorgevic dynasty and pro-Russian orientation, conflict with Austria-Hungary, conquest by the Central Powers in World War I
    - iiiBulgaria: "great Bulgaria" established by the Treaty of San Stefano (1878), Prince Alexander I and Russian influence (1879-86), Ferdinand I (1887-1918) and Stambolov's formation of a government, revolt of the Macedonian minority (1903), separation from Turkey (1908), adherence to the Central Powers in World War I