Part Nine IX › Division VII VII › Section 978 978

Southwest Asia and Africa: the Late Colonial Period and the Emergence of New Nations

Subject Outline

ATurkey since 1919 and Cyprus since 1920
- 1The war for independence (1919-23) and the development of the Turkish nation under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Ataturk
- 2Ataturk's one-party government: secularization, social and economic reforms
- 3Turkey since 1938: World War II and the postwar period, the republic since 1961
  - aWartime neutrality until alignment (1945) with the Allies: postwar problems with the Soviet Union, political developments
  - bTurkey under the Democrats (1950-60): economic growth and political repression, the army coup (1960)
  - cNew constitution (1961) and government under the Republican Peasants' and Justice parties, period of martial law (1971-73), military coup (1980) and return to civilian government (1983), urbanization and industrialization, economic growth, mixed relations with East and West and with the Arab world, increasing violence of Kurdish separatist guerrillas and government counterinsurgency campaigns from the early 1990s
- 4Cyprus since 1920: British administration to 1960, the Republic of Cyprus, question of union with Greece, Turkish invasion (1974) and division of island, unilateral declaration of Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (1983), the European Union question (2004)
BDevelopment of the Arab states and Israel in Southwest Asia and Egypt
- 1The Arab lands of Southwest Asia under the mandate system
  - aLebanon and Syria under the French mandate (1920-41): Arab demands for independence, the Druze revolt in Syria (1925-27), establishment of the Lebanese Republic (1926) and internal crises, the Franco-Syrian Treaty (1936), Allied occupation in World War II, Syrian and Lebanese independence
  - bIraq from 1918 to 1945: British occupation and mandate, independence (1932), political unrest and the role of the military, World War II and British intervention (1939-45)
  - cPalestine and Transjordan under the British mandate (1920-48): the Balfour Declaration and the acceleration of Jewish settlement and conflicts with the Arabs, the Arab revolt (1936-39) and the Peel Commission, the Biltmore Resolution (1942), the partition of Palestine and the emergence of Israel (1948) and Jordan (1946)
- 2Egypt from 1922 to 1945: Wafd-led opposition to the continued British presence, politics in the early reign of Farouk I, participation in World War II
- 3The Arab states in the Fertile Crescent, Egypt, and Israel since 1945
  - aLebanon: the multireligious political system, the Khuri regime (1943-52), the presidency of Chamoun and the 1958 crisis, later regimes and the civil war of 1975-76, Syrian military intervention (1976) and subsequent occupation of central and eastern territories, Syrian predominance in Lebanese affairs, the Israeli invasion of 1982 and establishment of Israeli-occupied "security zone" (1983), renewed civil war, de facto division into spheres of influence, government of national unity (1984), end of civil war (1990), cross-border raids with Israel, Israeli withdrawal (2000)
  - bSyria: political instability in the postwar decade, temporary union with Egypt (1958-61), the secessionist regime (1961-63), the Ba'thist coup of 1963, conflicts with Israel, role in the Lebanese civil wars, relations with Palestine Liberation Organization, domestic unrest
  - cThe Arab League (1945), the partition of Palestine, and the establishment of Israel (1948) and Jordan (1946)
    - iThe establishment of Israel (1948) and resultant conflicts with the Arabs: immigration and politics, foreign aid and economic development, renewed hostilities with the Arab states in the Suez War (1956), the Six-Day War (1967) and the diplomatic stalemate, the war of October 1973, role in the Lebanese civil war, treaty with Egypt (1979), invasion of Lebanon (1982) and withdrawal (1985), Palestinian intifada (from 1987), * expansion of Jewish settlements in occupied territory and massive immigration of Soviet Jews, peace talks with Palestinians and Arab states (from 1992), extension of self-government to Palestinians in West Bank and Gaza Strip (from 1995)
    - iiEconomic and political problems in Jordan under King Hussein: annexation of the West Bank (1950), ambivalent foreign policy, formation of the Palestine Liberation Organization (1964), Israeli annexations (1967), Jordan's expulsion of the PLO (1971), renunciation of claims and ties to West Bank (1988), peace treaty with Israel (1994)
  - dIraq: postwar reconstruction and social upheavals (1945-58), the revolution of 1958, politics under the republic, military coups (1963-68), oil and the economy, the Ba'th revolution of 1968, the Kurdish question, Iran-Iraq war (1980--88 [officially ended 1990]), invasion of Kuwait (1990) and defeat in Persian Gulf war (1991)
  - eRadicalization of Egyptian politics in the last years of Farouk's reign, the Egyptian revolution (1952) and Nasser's rise to power, the Suez crises (1956), the Six-Day War (1967), Sadat's presidency (1970-81), and assassination (1981), Mubarak's presidency, rise of Islamic fundamentalism
- 4The Arabian Peninsula since c. 1920: the political, economic, and social effects of the discovery of oil and the resultant influx of wealth; British and other great-power influences
  - aEmergence of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia under Ibn Sa'ud (1924); oil discoveries and exploitation; the government under Faysal (1964-75), Khalid (1975-82), and Fahd; increasing control of oil resources; rise as a dominant Arab power; participation in Persian Gulf War (1991)
  - bThe other Arabian states: Bahrain and Qatar, Kuwait, Oman, the United Arab Emirates, Yemen (Aden), Yemen (San' a'); Yemeni wars and union negotiations; formation of Gulf Cooperation Council (1981), unification of Yemen (1990) and subsequent civil war (1994), Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and ensuing Persian Gulf War (1990-91)
CIran, Afghanistan, and Central Asia since c. 1920
- 1Iran since 1925
  - aThe regime of Reza Shah (1925-41): economic and social reforms, relations with Germany and invasion by Allies during World War II
  - bThe regime of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (1941-79), premiership of Mohammad Mosaddeq (1951-53) and nationalization of oil resources (1951), ouster of Mosaddeq by U.S.-sponsored military coup (1953) and consolidation of power by Reza Pahlavi, land reform (from 1962), expansion of economy from petroleum revenues
  - cRevolution of 1978-79, establishment of the Islamic Republic (1979) under Ruhollah Khomeini, political and religious persecution and suppression of Western influence in the early republican regime, support of Muslim fundamentalist movements, Iran-Iraq war (1980--88 [officially ended 1990])
- 2Afghanistan since independence (1921): civil disorders, attempts at reform, and economic improvements; constitutional revisions; Soviet invasion of 1979 and guerrilla resistance; Soviet withdrawal, establishment of provisional Islamic republic, continued unrest
- 3The Central Asian republics of Kazakstan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Turkmenistan: Soviet rule from 1917 and independence after collapse of Soviet Union (1991)
DNorth Africa since 1920
- 1The final decades of European rule
  - aFrench colonial policies, the French protectorate and the Spanish Zone in Morocco, the administration of Algeria and the Algerian War of Independence, Tunisian nationalist movements
  - bLibya under the domination of the Fascist Italian government (1922-42)
- 2Establishment of independent states in the Maghrib
  - aPostwar British and French occupation of Libya, independence (1951), establishment of the republic and emergence of Qaddafi (1969), disruptive role in world affairs, treaty of union with Morocco (1984) abrogated in 1986, UN economic sanctions (1992-2003)
  - bThe emergence of independent Tunisia (1956): formation of republic (1957), Tunisia under Bourguiba's presidency (1957-87); rise of Islamic fundamentalists from the mid-1980s
  - cThe emergence of independent Morocco (1956): government under Muhammad V (d. 1961), Hassan II (d. 1999), and Muhammad VI, the Spanish Zone and its reduction to Ceuta and Melilla, dispute over Western Sahara, treaty of union with Libya (1984-86)
  - dThe Algerian War of Independence (1954-62), French evacuation, and the emergence of independent Algeria (1962): government under Ben Bella (overthrown 1965), Boumedienne (1965-78), and Bendjedid (1979--92); adoption of socialist and Islamic National Charter (1976); support for the Polisario Front in Western Sahara; growing influence of Islamic fundamentalism; military takeover (1992), increasing civil strife
  - eMauritania and Spanish (Western) Sahara: independent Mauritania (from 1960), Polisario revolt in Western Sahara from the mid-1970s, division of Western Sahara between Mauritania and Morocco and Moroccan takeover of Mauritanian zone (1979)
EThe maturation of the European colonial system and the nationalist movements in sub-Saharan Africa since 1920
- 1Completion of effective occupation by the European powers: the post-World War I division of former German colonies among other colonial powers, the mandate system
- 2Administrative policies and attitudes of each colonial power: economic development, effects of colonialism on the societies and institutions of the African peoples
- 3World War II and postwar changes in colonial policies: decline of the colonial system and rise of African nationalist parties, establishment of independent African countries from 1957, the Organization of African Unity from 1963, the assertiveness of white-settled Africa
- 4West Africa since c. 1920
  - aColonial rule from c. 1920 until independence, independent Liberia's economic ties to the U.S.
    - iEconomic developments in French West Africa: Senegal, French Guinea, the Ivory Coast, French Sudan, Upper Volta
    - iiEconomic developments in British colonies: The Gambia, Sierra Leone, Gold Coast, Nigeria
  - bDecolonization and independence
    - iEmergence of African leaders: rise of a new class of educated Africans
    - iiFormation of African independence movements, independence for all the former colonies between 1957 and 1975, the countries of Western Africa after independence, problems of economic development, political instability, military coups and emergence of one-party states
- 5Ethiopia and the Nilotic Sudan since c. 1917
  - aEthiopia and Eritrea since 1917: internal division and the rise of Haile Selassie, the Italian conquest (1936), Eritrea under Italian rule, federation (1952) and union (1962) with Ethiopia, establishment of military government and abolition of the monarchy (1974), death of Haile Selassie (1975), Eritrean revolt and Somali invasion of the Ogaden, development of Socialist state under Mengistu, fall of Mengistu regime (1991), Eritrean independence (1993)
  - bThe Anglo-Egyptian Sudan: growth of national consciousness and creation of the independent republic (1956), military coup (1958) and the Abbud government (1958-64), revolt in the southern provinces, return to civilian rule, government of Nimeiri (1969-85) and temporary resolution of the southern problem, renewed war in the south following introduction of Islamic law (1983) and administrative decentralization, military coups (1985 and 1989) and continued civil war
- 6East Africa and Madagascar since c. 1920
  - aThe European colonies in East Africa from c. 1920 to the beginning of independence (1960)
    - iThe colonial economics: growth of export trade (cotton, cloves, coffee), extension of the railroads
    - iiSomalia as an Italian trust territory (1950), problems in British Somaliland
    - iiiCrises of colonial rule in the 1950s: Mau Mau resistance in Kenya; independence movements in Uganda, Tanganyika, and Zanzibar
  - bDevelopments since independence
    - iSomalia: independence (1960), internal tensions and territorial disputes, conflict with Ethiopia, military takeover (1969) and regime of Siyad Barre, break with the Soviet Union (1977), war with Ethiopia (1977-78) and continued unrest in the Ogaden, influx of refugees, overthrow of Siyad (1991), clan-based civil war, famine and multinational intervention in the early 1990s, breakdown of central authority
    - iiEconomic cooperation among the formerly British East African nations: the East African Community and its end (1977)
    - iiiTanzania (formerly Tanganyika and Zanzibar): revolt against Arab control in Zanzibar (1964), Nyerere and introduction of ujamaa socialism, tension with Uganda and invasion in support of revolt against Amin (1979), economic difficulties and subsequent reforms beginning in the late 1980s, multiparty politics from the mid-1990s
    - ivUganda: independence (1962) and economic growth, the Obote and Amin governments, reign of terror and economic decline, deposition of Amin (1979), reinstatement (1980) and overthrow (1985) of Obote, government of Museveni from 1986, constitution of 1995
    - vKenya: independence (1963) and presidency of Kenyatta (1964-78), death of Kenyatta and succession of arap Moi (1978), establishment of one-party state (1982-1992), election of Kibaki to presidency (2002)
  - cMadagascar: the French administration, independence (1960) and subsequent domestic politics and foreign relations
- 7Central Africa after World War II: the intensification of nationalist movements and the acquisition of independence by the former European colonies
  - aThe emergence of French and Belgian colonies as republics: internal divisions and the fate of the republics
    - iThe Democratic Republic of the Congo (Republic of Zaire, 1971-97): the Congolese nationalist movement and independence (1960), secession of Katanga province and UN intervention (1960-64), regime of Mobutu Sese Seko (1965-97), civil strife
    - iiCentral African Republic: independence (1960); regimes of Bokassa (1965-79), Dacko (1979-81), and Kolingba (1981-93); presidency of Patasse (1993-2003; coup)
    - iiiRepublic of the Congo: independence (1960), ethnic rivalries, domestic politics and foreign relations
    - ivGabon: independence (1960), subsequent domestic politics and foreign relations
    - vBurundi and Rwanda: independence (1962), warfare between Tutsi and Hutu
  - bRepublic of Equatorial Guinea: the Spanish administration, independence (1968), repressive regime of Macias Nguema, military coup (1979) and regime of Nguema Mbasogo
- 8Southern Africa since c. 1920
  - aSouthern Africa from c. 1920 to c. 1945
    - iPolitical and economic developments in white-settler-controlled Union of South Africa: the Hertzog administration (1924-33) and the Hertzog-Smuts coalition (1933-39), political disunity and Allied participation in World War II
    - iiWhite-settler control of Southern Rhodesia: relations with Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland and economic, social, and political discrimination against black Africans; Portuguese rule in Angola and Mozambique
    - iiiIndian, Coloured, and black African responses to discrimination: growth of local political organizations, separatist church movements, and mass nationalist movements
  - bSouthern Africa since 1945: political developments in white-controlled colonies and nations, emergence of black nations
    - iRepublic of South Africa (formerly the Union of South Africa): Afrikaner National Party administrations from 1948, government-sanctioned apartheid, establishment of Bantu Homelands (1959), antiapartheid movements and growing international isolation, Soweto riots (1976), constitutional reforms (1983), increasing political dissent, legalization of African National Congress (1990), repeal of major apartheid laws, establishment of black majority rule with victory of African National Congress in first all-race elections (1994)
    - iiNamibia (formerly known as South West Africa): international and internal resistance to South African rule, revocation of UN mandate (1966) and international efforts toward independence, independence of Namibia (1990)
    - iiiBotswana, Lesotho, and Swaziland: British administration of the High Commission Territories, independence (1966, 1968), relations with South Africa, the AIDS pandemic
    - ivBritish Central Africa: postwar economic development in Northern Rhodesia, Southern Rhodesia, and Nyasaland; the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (1953-63); rise of black nationalist movements; independence of Zambia and Malawi (1964), governments of Kaunda (1964-91) in Zambia and Banda (1964-94) in Malawi
    - vZimbabwe (formerly Southern Rhodesia): Rhodesian Front governments of Ian Smith (1964-79), the Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI; 1965), civil war, establishment of Zimbabwe (1980), rule of Mugabe from 1980
    - viDevelopments in the Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique: economic advances, nationalist movements, and independence in the mid-1970s; civil war in Angola and intervention by South African and Cuban troops, prolonged guerrilla warfare in Angola and Mozambique in the 1980s; Mozambique-South Africa nonaggression pact (1984); short-lived peace agreements in Angola and withdrawal of Cuban troops (1991); multiparty Angolan elections (1992) and resumption of conflict; end of guerrilla war in Mozambique (1992)