Part Nine IX › Division VII VII › Section 976 976

South and Southeast Asia: the Late Colonial Period and the Emergence of New Nations

Subject Outline

AIndia, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Tibet, and Nepal since 1920
- 1India c. 1920 to 1947
  - aIntensified agitation for Indian independence and Gandhi's satyagraha movement of nonviolent resistance; Round Table Conference (1930-32), British offers of constitutional reform, the Government of India Act (1935)
  - bIncreased strength of the Muslim League, movement for a separate Muslim state (Pakistan), the political and economic effects of World War II, partition and independence (1947)
- 2India since 1947
  - aDomestic affairs: establishment of a parliamentary system and reorganization of the states under Nehru and the Congress Party (1947-64); administrations of Lai Bahadur Shastri
  - bForeign policy: Nehru's policy of nonalignment, continuing dispute with Pakistan over Kashmir, conflict with Pakistan over East Pakistan (Bangladesh) in 1971, border conflict with China and Chinese incursion (1962), Indian peace-keeping troops in Sri Lanka (1987-1990)
- 3Pakistan since 1947
  - aNational consolidation (1947-51) under Mohammed Ali Jinnah and Liaquat Ali Khan, economic and political instability
  - bMilitary government of Ayub Khan (1958-69); economic and political reforms; border conflict with India; administration of Yahya Khan (1969-71); civil war between East and West Pakistan, secession of East Pakistan (since 1971, Bangladesh); administrations of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (1971-77), Zia-ul-Haq (1977-88), Benazir Bhutto (1988-90, 1993-96), and Sharif (1990-93, 1997-99); military government of Musharraf (1999- )
- 4Bangladesh since 1971: emergence of nation, government of Mujibur Rahman (1972-75), adoption of presidential form of government (1975), martial-law administrations of Zia ur-Rahman (1975-81) and Ershad (1982-90), return to parliamentary system (1991), administrations of Khaleda Zia (1991--96, 1999- ) and Wazed 1996-99)
- 5Ceylon since 1920 (after 1972, Sri Lanka)
  - aNationalism and demands for constitutional reform (1920-31), the 1931 constitution and the granting of universal franchise
  - bDominion status (1947); parliamentary rule by United National Party (1947-56, 1960, 1965-70, and 1977-78) and by Sri Lanka Freedom Party (1956-60, 1960-65, and 1970-77); the constitution of 1972 and the establishment of a presidential system in the constitution of 1978; presidency of J.R. Jayawardene (1978-89) and succession by Ranasinghe Premadasa (1989); insurgent campaign for an independent Tamil state and protracted civil war; assassination of Premadasa (1993); election (1994) and reelection (1999) of Chandrika Kumaratunga
- 6Tibet since 1920: defense of frontier against China; Chinese invasion (1950) and the reestablishment of Chinese hegemony, complete Chinese government control after 1959; suppression of violent protests against Chinese rule (1987)
- 7Nepal since 1920: British withdrawal (1947) and revival of Nepalese royal control under Tribhuvan (1951-55), Mahendra (1955-72), Birendra (1972-2001), and Gyanendra (2001- ); nationwide political unrest and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy (1990)
BMainland Southeast Asia since 1920
- 1Myanmar (Burma) since 1920
  - aEmergence of Burmese nationalism and the British response (1920-37), limited constitutional government (1937-42), the Japanese occupation (1942-45)
  - bPostwar independence of Burma (1948) under U Nu, adoption of leftist-neutralist position, internal conflict and military government under U Ne Win (1962-81), continued economic problems, socialist state and new constitution (1974), minority insurgencies, military coup (1988), adoption of the name Myanmar (1989), victory of National League for Democracy in multiparty elections (1990), continued military repression
- 2Malaya (Malaysia) and Singapore since 1920
  - aMalaya and Singapore from 1920 to 1965: British economic policies in Malaya, Japanese occupation (1942-45), British return to power (1945) and progress toward self-government, suppression of Communist insurgents (1948-60), creation of Federation of Malaya (1948) and reestablishment as Malaysia (1963), Singapore's withdrawal (1965) and creation of independent Republic of Singapore
  - bMalaysia since 1965: dominance of United Malays National Organization, communal tension and nationwide state of emergency (1969-70), New Economic Policy (1971), industrialization and exploitation of timber and oil resources, resignation of Prime Minister Datuk Hussein Onn and succession by Mahathir (1981), the New Development Policy (1991, Mahathir's resignation and succession by Abdullah (2003)
  - cSingapore since 1965: People's Action Party (PAP) regime of Lee Kuan Yew (1965-90), rapid economic growth and sustained prosperity, authoritarian style of government and lack of effective political opposition, resignation of Lee and succession by PAP member Goh Chok Tong (1990)
- 3Thailand since 1920
  - aPost-World War I escape from unequal treaties, problems of kingship and repression, the coup d'etat of 1932 and the establishment of constitutional monarchy, militaristic and pro-Japanese nationalism, the Japanese occupation during World War II
  - bLoss of wartime gains and political instability, military domination (1947-68, 1971-73, and 1976-92), border incursions from Cambodia and influx of refugees; constitutional reforms and return to civilian government (1992)
- 4Indochina since 1920: emergence of independent states and continued strife
  - aFrench administration of Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos: Vietnamese nationalist movements and formation of the Indochina Communist Party (1930), Japanese occupation in World War II, postwar French administration in southern Vietnam and Cambodia
  - bHo Chi Minh's government in northern Vietnam and the French attempt to reconquer the north (1946-54), the Geneva Accords and legal temporary division of Vietnam (1954), French withdrawal and limited U.S. intervention
  - cVietnam from 1955 to 1975
    - iNorth Vietnam: industrialization, relations with other communist and other Asian countries, war with South Vietnam, U.S. military intervention, cease-fire agreement (1973), conquest of South Vietnam (1975)
    - iiSouth Vietnam: civil war and formation of National Liberation Front (1960), U.S. military intervention, cease-fire agreement (1973), end of regime of Nguyen Van Thieu, conquest by North Vietnam (1975)
  - dSocialist Republic of Vietnam: establishment of united Vietnamese government (July 2, 1976), political and economic problems, invasion (1978) and occupation of Cambodia, exodus of ethnic Chinese refugees and border war with China (1979), withdrawal from Cambodia (1989), economic reforms in the 1980s and early 1990s, improved relations with Asian and Western nations, economic growth
  - eLaos since 1950: civil war to 1954, Geneva Conference (1954) and creation of Laos as a neutral state, domestic instability and continued civil war between Pathet Lao and rightists, military involvement of the U.S. and North Vietnam, Pathet Lao victory and the Lao People's Democratic Republic (from 1975), domination by Vietnam in the 1980s, first parliamentary elections (1989) and new constitution of 1991
  - fCambodia since independence (1953): Sihanouk's domestic politics and severing of relations with the U.S. (1965); deposition of Sihanouk (1970) and Lon Nol and pro-Western realignment; capture of Phnom Penh by communist Khmer Rouge forces (1975); establishment of Democratic Kampuchea (1976); brutal collectivization and resettlement campaign and political persecution, resulting in large-scale deaths; invasion of Cambodia by Vietnamese forces and establishment of Vietnamese-dominated regime (1978-79); formation of coalition govemment-in-exile (1982), return of Sihanouk and the monarchy (1993)
CIndonesia and the Philippines
- 1Indonesia since 1920
  - aDutch administration of Indonesia from 1920 to independence in 1949
    - iDutch suppression of nationalist and communist revolts in the 1920s and 1930s, accommodation with moderate nationalist parties, Japanese occupation in World Warll
    - iiSukarno's proclamation of Indonesian independence (1945), Dutch attempt to regain control and UN intervention, formal granting of independence in 1949
  - bConstitutional democracy (1950) and Guided Democracy (1957-65) under Sukarno; military coup (1965), mass executions of communists and Sukarno's loss of influence; administration of Suharto (1966-98); invasion and occupation of East Timor (1975-99); massive depopulation of East Timor through starvation and military action; economic growth; East Timor independence (1999); post-Suharto transition to democracy
- 2The Philippines since 1920
  - aEconomic and social policies of U.S. administration in the 1920s and 1930s, growth of nationalist political parties, establishment as a commonwealth (1935), Japanese occupation (1941-45), return of U.S. control and commonwealth status