Part Nine IX › Division VII VII › Section 974 974

Latin-American and Caribbean Nations Since c. 1920

Subject Outline

AMexico since 1920
- 1Obregon's coup and Carranza's execution (1920), reforms during the regimes of Obregon (1920-24) and Calles (1924-28), rule by Calles' National Revolutionary Party (1928-34)
- 2Cardenas Six-Year Plan (1934-40): social and economic reforms, reorganization of the National Revolutionary Party, expropriation of foreign petroleum industry (1938), election of Avila Camacho (1940)
- 3Mexico during World War II: economic and military cooperation with the United States, wartime industrialization
- 4Mexico since 1945
  - aPolitical, economic, and social developments: dominance of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI); woman suffrage (1958); industrialization and urbanization; emergence as a major oil and gas producer; oil boom of the 1970s and debt crisis of the early 1980s; economic crises and reforms in the 1980s and early 1990s; revolt of the Zapatista National Liberation Army in Chiapas state, assassination of PRI presidential candidate Luis Donaldo Colosio and election of Ernesto Zedillo Ponce de Leon (1994), currency devaluation (1995) and severe recession, economic recovery, fall from power of PRI and election of Vicente Fox (2000)
  - bRelations with the U.S. and other countries: tensions over illegal immigration to the U.S., influx of Central American refugees and efforts at peacemaking in the region, foreign trade and the North American Free Trade Agreement (1992)
BCentral America and the Caribbean since c. 1920
- 1The Central American republics since c. 1920
  - aGuatemala since 1920
    - iSuccessive presidential governments in the 1920s, Ubico's dictatorship (1931-44), social reforms of Arevalo's regime (1945-51)
    - iiLand-redistribution schemes of the Arbenz regime (1951-54) and expropriation of United Fruit Company holdings (1952), U.S.-sponsored military coup (1954), cancellation of land reform and suppression of labor and peasant unions under Castillo Armas (1954-57), succession of military-dominated governments, growth of rural guerrilla insurgencies from 1962, civilian administration of Mendez Montenegro (1966-70), increased repression under Arana Osorio (1970-74)
    - iiiFormation of the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (UNRG; 1981) and increased guerrilla activity; large-scale "scorched-earth" counterinsurgency campaigns under Lucas Garda (1978-81), Rios Montt (1982-83), and Mejia Victores (1983- 85); return of civilian government under Cerezo Arevalo (1986); intermittent govemment-UNRG peace negotiations from 1987 and peace accord (1996); constitutional reforms (1993-94)
  - bHonduras since 1920: political unrest in the 1920s; Carias Andino's dictatorship (1932-49); administrations of Galvez (1949-54), Lozano Diaz (1954-56), Villeda Morales (1957-63), and successive military governments; return to civilian rule in 1982; involvement in regional conflicts
  - cEl Salvador since 1920: military dictatorships to 1944, interim governments (1945-48), junta rule and PRUD domination (1948-60), continued military government thereafter, civil war from the 1970s and U.S. involvement, civilian presidency of Duarte (1984-89) and election of Cristiani (1989), accord (1992) ending long period of guerrilla warfare
  - dNicaragua since 1920: continued U.S. military intervention until 1933, Sacasa's regime (1933-36), Somoza family's dominance (1937-79), popular uprising and Sandimsta rule (1979-90), U.S. sponsorship of Contra insurgency (1980s), presidential elections of Ortega (1984), Chamorro (1990), Aleman (1996), and Bolanos (2001)
  - eCosta Rica since 1920: border disputes with Panama until 1941, orderly presidential succession, industrialization and urbanization, economic problems of the early 1980s, regional peace efforts of Arias Sanchez (1986-90)
  - fPanama since 1920: unstable local politics and U.S. intervention, economic development, National Guard rule under Omar Torrijos (1968-78), the Panama Canal treaties with the U.S. (1977), U.S. invasion of Panama and overthrow of de facto ruler Noriega
  - gBelize since 1920: progress toward independence, government of George Price, achievement of independence in 1981, economic struggles, and recovery from 2001 hurricane
- 2The island states of the Caribbean since the end of U.S. occupation
  - aHaiti since 1934: internal struggle for power (1934-57); dictatorial presidency of Francois Duvalier (1957-71) and political terror of the Tontons Macoutes, succession by Duvalier's son, Jean-Claude (1971), popular unrest and exile of Jean-Claude (1986); successive military governments and continued repression; election of Jean- Bertrand Aristide in 1990 and military coup (1991); occupation by U.S. troops and restoration of civilian government (1994); continued social and political uncertainty and economic difficulties
  - bDominican Republic since 1930: Trujillo's dictatorship (1930-61) and assassination (1961), reformist government of Bosch and military coup (1963), popular revolution and U.S. military intervention (1965-66), conservative regimes of Balaguer (1966-78), cautious reforms under Guzman Fernandez (1978-82) and Jorge Blanco (1982-86), Balaguer s return (1986-96) and death (2002)
  - cCuba since 1934
    - iFulgencio Batista's dictatorships (1933-44; 1952-59), growth of the military and middle classes, foreign control of the economy and widespread rural poverty
    - iiThe Cuban Revolution of 1959: Fidel Castro's program for Cuban Socialism
    - iiiCuba under Castro: nationalization of foreign-owned property, alignment with the Soviet bloc, attempts to foment revolution in other Latin-American states in the 1960s, improvements in education and medical care, extensive civilian foreign-assistance missions, military involvement in Africa and renewed support of leftist movements in Central America, collapse of the Soviet bloc and ensuing political isolation and economic hardship
    - ivRelations with the U.S.: nationalization of U.S.-owned property and U.S. trade embargo from 1960, emigration of Cubans to the U.S., the Bay of Pigs invasion (1961), the Cuban missile crisis (1962), second wave of emigration (1981), confrontation with U.S. troops at Grenada (1983), tightening of trade embargo (1992), third wave of emigration (1994), and easing of trade embargo (2000)
  - dThe new nations of the Caribbean region: Antigua and Barbuda, The Bahamas, Barbados, Dominica, Grenada, Jamaica, St. Christopher and Nevis, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago; efforts toward development and regional cooperation; U.S. involvement in the region; U.S. invasion of Grenada (1983); growth of tourism
  - eU.S. and European territories and possessions in the Caribbean region: Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, Bermuda and other British insular possessions, French Guiana and French insular possessions, Netherlands Antilles
CVenezuela and Colombia since c. 1930
- 1Venezuela since 1935
  - aAbortive attempts at democratic government amid renewed military dictatorships (1935-58), inception of civilian rule, economic reforms of the Democratic Action (AD) party, political stabilization and economic development under governments of the AD and the Social Christian Party (COPEI) in the 1960s
  - bOil-based economic boom in the 1970s, nationalization of the oil industry (1976), declining oil revenues and economic stagnation and foreign-debt crises from the late 1970s, efforts at industrial diversification and austerity measures provoking civil unrest, presidency of Caldera (1993-99) and Chavez (1999- ), continued economic difficulties
- 2Colombia since 1930
  - aLiberal Party rule (1930-46): social and land reforms during the Lopez administrations (1934-38 and 1942-45)
  - bReemergence of Conservative rule under Ospina Perez (1946-50), La Violencia era of widespread civil unrest and political violence (1948-62), military dictatorship of Rojas Pinilla (1953-57), formation of National Front coalition of Conservatives and Liberals (1957)
  - cUneven economic development under Lleras Restrepo (1966-70) and Pastrana Borrero (1970-74), dissolution of the National Front (1974), increasing political violence by left-wing guerrillas and the military's "dirty war"; from the late 1970s, growth of drug trafficking and associated corruption, Conservative administration of Betancur Cuartas (1982-86), short-lived peace agreements with guerrilla groups amid continued violence (1980s and early 1990s), increasing drug-related terrorism and government efforts to subdue drug cartels
DEcuador, Peru, and Bolivia since c. 1930
- 1Ecuador since 1925
  - aEconomic development and participation in World War II, loss of territory to Peru (1942)
  - bVarious administrations of Velasco Ibarra and other presidents and military coups after 1945, constitution of 1979 and return to civilian rule, economic and social effects of the exploitation of petroleum after 1972
- 2Peru since 1930
  - aThe overthrow of Legula (1930); Sanchez Cerro's administration (1931-33); the Aprista uprising and Sanchez Cerro's assassination; Benavides' administration (1933--39), social reforms, and the outlawing of the Apristas
  - bPrado's first administration (1939-45); wartime cooperation with the U.S. and economic prosperity, legalization and re-outlawing of the Apristas during Bustamante's administration (1945-48), Odria's military dictatorship (1948-56) and suppression of Apristas
  - cRe-legalization of Apristas and economic prosperity during Prado's second term (1956-62), military seizure of power (1962), social reforms of Belaunde Terry's administration (1963-68), military takeover in 1968, restoration of civilian rule (1980) and return of Belaunde as president, economic difficulties of the early 1980s, rise of Sendero Luminoso guerrillas, left-of-centre government under Garcia Perez (1985-90), administrations of Fujimori (1990-2000) and Toledo (2001- )
- 3Bolivia since 1930
  - aThe revolt of 1930, Salamanca's presidency (1930-36), the effect of the Great Depression on the mining industry, the Chaco War (1932-35) and loss of territory to Paraguay
  - bMilitary coup (1936), rise of MNR and PIR political parties, 1943 military coup and the Villaroel dictatorship (1943-46), political instability to 1951, military junta (1951-52)
  - cThe Bolivian National Revolution (1952), nationalization of the tin industry, electoral and land reforms, Paz Estenssoro's administrations (1952-56 and 1960-64), U.S. economic aid, civil disorders, alternating military and civilian governments in the 1960s and 1970s, return to civilian rule under Siles Zuazo (1982), foreign debt and other economic problems, effects of drug trafficking, return of Paz Estenssoro as president (1985-89), increasing relative political stability and periods of civil unrest from the late 1980s, efforts to reduce drug trafficking
EChile since 1920
- 1Chile from 1920 to 1938
  - aThe presidency of Alessandri Palma (1920-24, 1925), military coup (1924), return to civilian rule (1925), constitution of 1925, political instability, military dictatorship under JMgez del Campo (1927-31)
  - bEconomic crises during the 1930s: brief return to civilian rule under Montero Rodriguez, military coup and 100-day rule of Socialist Republic, Alessandri Palma's second administration (1932-38)
- 2Chile from 1938 to 1952: the era of the Radical Party presidencies
  - aThe administrations of Cerda (1938-41) and Rios (1942-46): agrarian reforms, Chilean neutrality until 1942, economic prosperity
  - bGonzalez Yidela's administration (1946-52): strengthened economic ties with the U.S., return of Conservative Party influence
- 3Chilean politics since 1952
  - aIbanez del Campo's administration (1952-58) and strong presidential leadership, administration of Alessandri Rodriguez (1958-64), social and economic problems, ' proliferation of leftist political parties and realignment of conservative parties
  - bFrei's administration (1964-70) and nationalization of the economy, Allende's Marxist administration (1970-73), military coup (1973) and military rule under Pinochet (1973-90), political repression, continued economic difficulties, post-Pinochet moves toward democracy, gradual economic improvement
FArgentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay since c. 1930
- 1Argentina since 1930
  - aThe conservative restoration (1930-43): economic ties with Great Britain, electoral fraud and violence in the 1930s, neutrality in World War II
  - bThe Peron era (1943-55): his rise to and fall from power, economic policies
  - cArgentina since 1955: attempts to restore constitutionalism, military dictatorships, civil wars and Peronista resurgence, return (1973) and death (1974) of Peron, military coup (1976), excesses and economic failures of military rule, invasion of the Falkland Islands and defeat by Britain (1982), return to civilian rule under Alfonsln (1983-89), foreign-debt problems, administration of Menem (1989-99), post-Menem political and economic troubles
- 2Uruguay since 1929
  - aThe Great Depression, dictatorship of Gabriel Terra (1933-38), election of Alfredo Baldomir (1938), Uruguayan neutrality in World War II, economic boom and political reforms
  - bPost-World War II developments: the constitution of 1951 and the plural executive, recession (1954-58), 1958 election of Nationalists (Blancos), return of Colorado Party and return to presidential system (1966), Tupamaro guerrilla insurgency, dismissal of Congress (1973) and assumption of effective control by the military, severe recession of the early 1980s, restoration of civilian government (1985) and amnesty for the military
- 3Paraguay since 1924
  - aThe Great Depression, victory over Bolivia in Chaco War (1932-35), Allied alignment in World War II
  - bPolitical instability and economic retardation: Stroessner's dictatorship from 1954 to his overthrow in 1989, democratic reforms and new constitution of 1992
GBrazil since 1930: the Second Republic
- 1The Getulio Vargas dictatorship (1930-45): the revolution of 1930, the constitutions of 1934 and 1937, Vargas' consolidation of power (1937), social and economic legislation, Allied participation in World War II, Vargas' forced resignation (1945)
- 2Political, social, and economic developments in Brazil since 1945
  - aElection of Eurico Gaspar Dutra (1945) and the constitution of 1946, reelection of Vargas (1950), Vargas' forced resignation and suicide (1954), economic development and inflation in the 1950s
  - bElection of Janio Quadros as president (1960), Quadros' resignation (1961), parliamentary experiment and figurehead presidency of João Goulart (1961-63), 1963 plebiscite giving Goulart full presidential powers, social and economic unrest and nationalization of oil refineries, revolution and exile of Goulart and the beginning of military rule (1964)
  - cPresidency of Castelo Branco (1964-67): legislative restrictions on civil liberties and political rights, suspension of existing political parties and creation of artificial two-party system, enhancement of executive power, the constitution of 1967
  - dPresidencies of Costa e Silva, Medici, Geisel, and Figueiredo after 1967: continued repression amid increasing opposition to military rule, end of artificial two-party system and formation of new parties (1979), gains by opposition parties in 1982 elections, inflation and foreign-debt problems from the early 1980s
  - eReturn to civilian rule with presidency of Jose Samey (1985-90), liberalized constitution of 1988, presidency, impeachment, and resignation of Collor de Mello (1989-92), administrations of Cardoso (1994-2003) and Inacio da Silva (2003- )