Part Nine IX › Division VII VII › Section 972 972

Europe Since c. 1920

Subject Outline

AThe nations of western Europe since c. 1920
- 1Great Britain and Ireland
  - aDevelopments in Great Britain
    - iEconomic depression and labour unrest in the interwar period: formation of the first Labour government under MacDonald (1924), Baldwin's government (1924-29) and the General Strike of 1926, the National Government (1931-39)
    - iiBritish colonial and Commonwealth relations (1920-39): division of Ireland (1922), the Indian problem
    - iiiInterwar foreign policy (1931-39), Churchill's government (1940-45) and Britain's stand against the Axis Powers in World War II
    - ivThe Labour government (1945-51) and the welfare state, role in NATO and relationship to the European Economic Community (Common Market), the Conservative government (1951-64), disintegration of the British Empire, Labour government (1964-70), Conservative government (1970-74), Labour government (1974-79), entrance into the Common Market (1973), Conservative government under Thatcher (1979-90) and denationalization of state-owned enterprises, Falklands war with Argentina (1982), Conservative government of Major (1990-97), Labour government of Blair (elected 1997), Devolved assembles for Scotland and Wales
  - bDevelopments in Ireland since c. 1920
    - iDivision of Ireland and establishment of the Irish Free State and Northern Ireland (1922), the Cosgrave and De Valera governments, entrance into the Common Market (1973), death of De Valera (1975), Jack Lynch as prime minister (1966-73 and 1977- 79), the governments of Haughey, FitzGerald, Reynolds, Bruton, and Ahem
    - iiNorthern Ireland since 1922: growing antagonism between Roman Catholics and Protestants, economic stagnation, continuing violence, negotiations between republicans and British government, Belfast Agreement
- 2France since 1920
  - aFrom 1920 to the end of World War II
    - iDevelopments in the interwar period: internal financial crises and German reparations, collective security, the Great Depression, political instability and conflicts between right and left in the 1930s
    - iiSocial, cultural, and economic developments under the Third Republic
    - iiiWorld War II: defeat by Germany (1940) and the Vichy government; de Gaulle, the Free French, and Resistance movements; French participation in the Allied victory (1944-45)
  - bThe postwar period
    - iThe Fourth Republic (1946-58): constitution of the Fourth Republic; the realignment of parties; colonial independence movements; the French Indochina War, the Algerian War, and the crisis of 1958; de Gaulle's return to power
    - iiThe Fifth Republic: settlement of the Algerian question, independence of the French African colonies, Common Market, the student revolt of 1968, de Gaulle's retirement and continued mle by the Gaullist coalition, government of Valery Giscard d'Estaing, election of Franqois Mitterrand and socialist government in 1981, cohabitation government (1986-88), reelection of Mitterand in 1988, election and reelection of the neo-Gaullist Jacques Chirac (1995 and 2002)
- 3Germany since 1920
  - aFrom 1920 to the end of World War II
    - iThe Weimar Republic (1919-33): the Weimar Constitution, reaction to the Treaty of Versailles and reparations payments, opposition from the left and the right, attempts to stabilize the republic and reestablish Germany's international position, the rise to power of National Socialists (Nazis) and the end of the republic
    - iiThe Third Reich (1933-45): the Nazi revolution and establishment (1934-39) of the totalitarian police state by Hitler; persecution of the Jews; rearmament, expansion in eastern Europe, and formation of Axis alliance; World War II conquests throughout Europe; defeat by Allies (1945)
  - bThe postwar period
    - iGermany after World War II (1945-49): occupation by the Allies, partition between west and east zones
    - iiFormation of the Federal Republic of Germany and the leadership of Konrad Adenauer, role in NATO, economic recovery, continued Christian Democratic Union rule under Erhard and Kiesinger, Social Democratic chancellors Willy Brandt and Helmut Schmidt, success of Ostpolitik, return to power of Christian Democrats under Helmut Kohl (1982)
    - iiiThe German Democratic Republic: the Ulbricht government, the Berlin Wall, economic hardship, political repression, the flight of the East Germans to the West, the beginning of rapprochement with the West, collective leadership under Erich Honecker (1971), formal relations between the two Germanys (1972), admission to UN (1973), fall of the communist regime (1990)
    - ivReunification of Germany (1990), reelection of Kohl (1990 and 1994), victories of Schroder (1998 and 2002)
- 4Italy since 1920
  - aThe Fascist era
    - iThe postwar cabinets, foreign relations and the Fiume affair, the Fascist Party's rise to power (1922), Mussolini and the Fascist dictatorship
    - iiRapprochement with Germany, conquest of Ethiopia, effects of the Great Depression, Italian participation in World War II, the fall of Mussolini
  - bPostwar Italy: the De Gasperi era (1945-53), ministerial instability, economic recovery, struggle against terrorism in the late 1970s and early 1980s, parliamentary shift to the centre-left, declining strength of the Christian Democrats, first Socialist premier (1983), political and constitutional crises in the 1990s, premiership of Berlusconi (1994 and 2001)
- 5Spain and Portugal
  - aSpain since 1920
    - iThe military government of Primo de Rivera and establishment of the republic: the Civil War, German and Italian intervention, and Franco's victory; Spain's neutralism in World War II
    - iiRapprochement with the NATO powers in the postwar era: the Franco regime
    - iiiLast years of the Franco regime, government under King Juan Carlos, constitution of 1978, Basque separatism, moves toward regional self-government, development of closer ties with western Europe
  - bPortugal: military revolt (1926), the Salazar regime (1928-68), the constitution of 1933, neutralism in World War II, the effort to maintain the Portuguese colonial empire in the 1950s and 1960s, revolution of 1974, end of colonial involvement, constitution of 1976, Socialist government (1982-96), Aznar premiership (1996-2004)
- 6Scandinavia since c. 1900
  - aDenmark since c. 1900
    - iForeign policy, World War I, and economic effects of the war; the Great Depression; German occupation
    - iiThe postwar period: 1953 constitution; military, economic, and social policies; coalition governments, European Union issues
  - bSweden since c. 1900
    - iPolitical reforms and defense policies prior to World War I, neutrality during the war
    - iiPolitics in the interwar period: economic reforms and neutrality in World War II
    - iiiSocial and political reforms and establishment of the welfare state, neutralist foreign policy, new constitution (1975), defeat (1976) and return to power (1982) of the Social Democrats, assassination of Prime Minister Olof Palme (1986), second defeat (1991) of the Social Democrats and formation of nonsocialist coalition government, return to power (1994) of Social Democrats
  - cNorway since c. 1900
    - iSeparation from Sweden (1905); World War I, the Great Depression, and gradual economic recovery; foreign policy and German occupation during World War II
    - iiPolitical and social developments in the postwar period, foreign policy, economic benefits of North Sea petroleum discoveries
  - dFinland and Iceland since c. 1900
    - iFinland: liberation from Russia (1918), parliamentary government, agrarian reform, growth of political parties, language problems, foreign policy and activities during World War II, domestic and foreign policies in the postwar period, presidency of Urho Kekkonen (1956-81), neutrality and relations with the Soviet Union, economic recession and recovery since 1991
    - iiIceland: political developments (in union with Denmark) in the interwar period, aid to the Allies in World War II, establishment as an independent republic (1944), foreign relations, economic dependence on fishing, "cod wars" with Britain (1975-76)
- 7The Low Countries since 1920: Belgium, The Netherlands, and Luxembourg in the interwar period; German occupation in World War II; postwar loss of colonial possessions and integration in the European Economic Community; Benelux membership in NATO; Dutch industrialization and development of North Sea gas; Walloon-Fleming division in Belgium and federalization along communal lines
- 8Switzerland since 1920: Swiss neutrality in World War II, immigration and economic policies, dependence on alien workers and resulting tension, postwar neutrality policy
BEastern and central Europe
- 1The states of eastern Europe
  - aThe Soviet Union from the establishment of the communist state (1917) to the end of World War II
    - iThe governments of 1917; the October Revolution and establishment of the Soviet government; Civil War, War Communism, and the New Economic Policy; the struggle for succession after Lenin's death (1924) and the rise of Stalin
    - iiForeign policy, society, and culture under the New Economic Policy: purges and consolidation of Stalinism, Soviet foreign policy in the 1930s
    - iiiWorld War II: consolidation in eastern Europe, the German offensive (1941) and the Battle of Stalingrad, Soviet advance into Europe, resurgent nationalism and strengthening of the regime, Soviet military and political position in 1945
  - bThe postwar period in the Soviet Union
    - iEconomic recovery after the war: Stalin's monopoly of power until his death (1953), Cold War relations with the U.S. and other countries, deterioration of relations with the People's Republic of China
    - iiDe-Stalinization and the Khrushchev era (1957-64): ideological disputes with China, economic problems
    - iiiThe Brezhnev-Kosygin era (1964-82) and collective leadership: agricultural problems and achievements in industrial production, foreign policy and space exploration, continued censorship and discontent among intellectuals
    - ivShort rule of Andropov (1982-84) and Chernenko (1984-85), efforts to alleviate economic stagnation, deterioration of relations with the U.S.
    - vSuccession of Gorbachev (1985), introduction of glasnost and perestroika; economic crisis and plans for a market economy; moves toward independence by Soviet republics and resurgence of ethnic tensions; failure of hard-line communist coup and dissolution of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (1991)
  - cRussia, Ukraine, and Belarus since 1991; the Commonwealth of Independent States
  - dTranscaucasia: Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia under Soviet rftle (from 1920), full independence after collapse of Soviet Union (1991), ethnic unrest
- 2The states of central Europe
  - aAustria since 1918
    - iEstablishment of the First Republic (1918), economic reconstruction and political strife, association with Italy, authoritarian rule of the Dollfuss and Schuschnigg governments, the Anschluss (annexation by Germany) and participation in World War II
    - iiThe Second Republic: independence in 1945, Allied occupation to 1955, restoration of sovereignty and establishment as a neutral state (1955), relative economic and political stability, controversy surrounding presidency of Waldheim (1986), coalition government, questions concerning Austrian neutrality
  - bHungary since 1918
    - iEstablishment of the republic (1918); Bela Kun's "soviet republic"; loss of Transylvania, Slovakia, and Croatia by the Treaty of Trianon (1920); the Horthy regency (1920-44); financial crisis and the rise of the radical right; reacquisition (with Germany) of Slovakian territory; restoration of the Trianon frontiers (1947)
    - iiEstablishment of the People's Republic (1949): the reaction against Soviet domination in the Revolution of 1956, suppression of the revolt, the Kadar regime, introduction of the New Economic Mechanism (1968)
    - iiiDeterioration of the economy in the 1980s, establishment of opposition parties, voluntary abandonment of political monopoly by the communists, proclamation of the Republic of Hungary (1989), transition to a market economy, NATO (1999) and EU (2004) membership
  - cCzech Republic and Slovakia (Czechoslovakia) since 1914
    - iThe struggle for independence under Tomas Masaryk, establishment of Czechoslovakia (1918), consolidation of internal affairs
    - iiDiscontent among Sudeten German and Slovak minorities; attempts at rapprochement with Germany, the Munich agreement (1938) and German occupation (1938-39); liberation by the Soviet Union (1945); communist rule from 1948
    - iiiDevelopments since 1948: the People's Republic (1948-60), collectivization of land and adjustments to the Soviet pattern; attempts at liberalization and reform ("Prague Spring") under Dubcek (1968), invasion by five Warsaw Pact countries, return to orthodox communist rule and repression of political dissent; emergence of the dissident Charter 77 movement (1977); antigovernment demonstrations, resignation of communist government, election to presidency of dissident Vaclav Havel (1989); dissolution of Czechoslovak federation and creation of Czech and Slovak republics; European Union membership (2004)
  - dPoland since 1918
    - iEstablishment of the Second Polish Republic (1918), the "Polish Corridor," Russo-Polish War of 1919-20, the Pilsudski regime, social and economic problems, German invasion and joint German-Soviet partition (1939), permanent loss of territory to the Soviet Union and annexation of German territory (1945)
    - iiPostwar developments under communist rule: conflict with the Roman Catholic church, agricultural and industrial growth, the 1956 uprising, the Gomulka and Gierek governments, labour unrest and the formation of Solidarity, the Kania and Jaruzelski governments, imposition of martial law (1981-83) and suppression of Solidarity, relations with the Roman Catholic church under John Paul II
    - iiiLegalization of Solidarity, political and economic reform and victory of Solidarity candidate Lech Walesa (1989); election of Aleksander Kwasniewski (1995); membership in NATO (1999) and EU (2004)
  - eThe establishment of independence (1918) of Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania from the former Russian Empire; political and economic development in the interwar period; incorporation into the Soviet Union (1940); German occupation (1941-44); postwar collectivization and industrialization; full independence (1991); EU membership (2004)
- 3The Balkans: Greece, Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Romania, and Albania since c. 1920
  - aThe Balkans from c. 1920 to c. 1945
    - iSettlement of the borders of Balkan states (1919-26), continued dislocation of nationality groups, civil unrest, growth of peasant political parties and communism, land reform and industrialization, police repression and political instability
    - iiGerman invasion and Axis occupation (1941-45): resistance movements and communist leadership of the Partisans
  - bPostwar developments in the Balkans
    - iGreece: civil war and the defeat of communist forces (1946-49), military dictatorship (1967-74), return to civilian rule and repudiation of the monarchy (1974), leftist government under Papandreou (1981-89), entry into the European Economic Community (1981), election of conservative government under Mitsotakis (1990), return of Papandreou (1993-96)
    - iiEstablishment of communist governments in Yugoslavia, Albania, Romania, and Bulgaria; Yugoslav break with the Soviet Union (1948), establishment of collective presidency after the death of Tito (1980); Albanian alignment with the Soviet Union (1948--61) and China (1961-78); independent Romanian foreign policy under Ceau§escu (1965-89); Bulgaria's alliance with the Soviet bloc; Yugoslavian unrest
    - iiiPolitical changes since the late 1980s: political disintegration of Yugoslavia and emergence of separatist and ethnic conflicts in the region; popular revolt against Communist regime in Romania (1989); establishment of independence of Moldova; multiparty parliamentary elections in Romania (1990), Bulgaria (1990), and Albania (1992), escalation of hostilities among Serbs, Croats, and Bosnians and intervention of the UN and Western Allies, death of Yugoslavia and birth of Serbia and Montenegro, accession to NATO and European Union of several Balkan states